There has been a rising body of literature on international and nationwide cobalt material flows32,33,34,35,36,37,38, trade links39,40, demand forecasting41, and recycling potential (mostly of lithium-ion batteries)42,forty three,44,forty five. However, the extent to which battery and recycling technology progress will relieve the worldwide and regional cobalt demand–supply imbalance, particularly considering the spatiotemporal variations in different world areas, remains poorly understood. In actuality, of course, these major economies (China, the united states, Japan, and the EU) have additionally managed to repeatedly broaden their possession of international cobalt mines via abroad mining projects. In fact, the EU would no longer face a provide scarcity underneath scenarios S2–S7.
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